Tackling Tik Tok - Our expert explains what the problem is and what's next for the Chinese owned app
TikTok is one of the most popular social media sites in the world. In the United States, more than 170 million people and businesses use the app on a regular basis.Now, the federal government has taken the first step in banning the China-based app unless the ownership group, ByteDance, sells TikTok. The House of Representatives passed a bipartisan bill in support of the ban, and now it awaits Congress to act. President Joe Biden has indicated he would sign the bill banning TikTok unless it’s sold, but whether it reaches his desk remains to be seen.This stems from the fear that China uses user information to their advantage. According to Lance Hunter, PhD, associate professor of political science in Pamplin College of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, the concern is well deserved. “Even if it’s a privately-owned enterprise, China can still control it, they can still manipulate it to some degree as if it was a state -owned enterprise,” said Hunter.Hunter’s research focuses on how informational warfare attacks influence politics worldwide. He said the algorithm TikTok uses can play a major role in informational warfare on two fronts.“One, it’s the data gathering, and that can be used for micro targeting because basically what TikTok can do is collect the data and provide information as to what certain individuals respond to an this is exactly how you can persuade them.”“Also, there is empirical evidence that China has used TikTok before to try to influence elections to some degree. One example in the 2022 midterm elections in which some candidates from both parties were targeted by TikTok accounts that were controlled by a propaganda agency operating within the Chinese government.”Hunter added the TikTok algorithm is more advanced than some other social media platforms and more effective in knowing what people like and why they like it.With so many AI-generated posts, it can be difficult for the consumer to decipher what is legitimate, and what isn’t. There are some red flags for people to be on the lookout for.“One thing the average person can do is be very wary of what you’re seeing and ask yourself does this seem legitimate?” he added. “If everyone is saying the exact same thing, that’s a tell sometimes. Also, where does this information originate from, and what are the timestamps on the posts? Something else is to look at the individual who made the post. Who are these people and who’s following them? You may be able to see if they are legitimate accounts.”While China, and Russia for that matter, are trying to influence people in several ways, Hunter said they are also trying to cause division among the American people.“They do want to influence elections at times, absolutely. But one of their other goals, and sometimes even more predominant goals for them, is to increase division, increase polarization, and that’s a great way to do that,” Hunter said. “Even if you have a temporary reaction, you’ve increased that division which could have longer term effects.”Are you covering this important and ongoing story? Then let us help with your stories and questions.Lance Hunter is an assistant professor of political science with a background in international relations. His research focuses on how terrorist attacks influence politics in democratic countries and how political decisions within countries affect conflicts worldwide.He is available to speak with media about this important topic simply click on his icon to arrange an interview today.
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What role will social media play as Trump supporters rally and react?
With a potential indictment and even arrest of former President Donald Trump expected to happen sometime this week, there's serious concern about protests among a further divided American people.As news is now shared instantaneously via social media, recent history shows how effective that platform can be, as well as how dangerous and violent the reaction and outcome can be.Lance Hunter, PhD, associate professor in Pamplin College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences and the Master of Arts in Intelligence and Security Studies program at Augusta University, recently was part of two studies that show evidence linking social media to political violence, including domestic terrorism and civil conflict.The studies included over 150 countries and covered the time frame 2000 to 2019.“When social media is dangerous is when it increases polarization," said Hunter. "When it’s used to spread disinformation that disinformation can have a polarizing effect on citizens around the world, and that polarization is associated with political violence.”The study concluded in 2019, but there have been instances of violence in the U.S. since then. Hunter said researchers may continue to speculate on the relationship between social media posts and the acts of domestic terrorism.“There is a noticeable effect that social media can really influence political violence, especially if it’s used for disinformation purposes. I think maybe it’s just something to think about going forward for governments and citizens regarding how we should approach social media because I think with any type of technology, it can be used for good or for evil.”For now, it's all eyes across multiple platforms and influential personalities to monitor the situation as the country waits for what may come.Are you covering this important topic? Then let our experts help with your stories and questions.Hunter is an assistant professor of political science with a background in international relations. His research focuses on how terrorist attacks influence politics in democratic countries and how political decisions within countries affect conflicts worldwide.Hunter is available to speak with media about this important topic simply click on his icon to arrange an interview today.
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The effects of social media on domestic terrorism - Our experts have the answers
There is no question social media has an impact on today’s society. Worldwide there isn’t much research available with empirical evidence showing its effect.Lance Hunter, PhD, associate professor in Pamplin College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences and the Masters of Arts in Intelligence and Security Studies program at Augusta University recently was part of two studies that show evidence linking social media to political violence including domestic terrorism and civil conflict.The studies included over 150 countries and covered the time frame 2000 to 2019.“One of the things we found very interesting is the amount of time that people spend on social media on average within each country per year. It really does matter in affecting the amount of domestic terrorism within countries,” said Hunter.While many are focused on what happens domestically, Hunter found that some countries have more social media usage as compared to the United States and have varying amounts of political violence within their countries.“When social media is dangerous is when it increases polarization. When it’s used to spread disinformation that disinformation can have a polarizing effect on citizens around the world, and that polarization is associated with political violence.”Even socio-economic factors can play a role in social media and its effect on people in a country.“Looking at our research and data and looking across democracies and non-democracies, different income levels of countries most developed, less developed, we see there is a noticeable effect that social media can really influence political violence, especially if it’s used for disinformation purposes.”He went on to add since their data ended in 2019, and there have been instances of violence in the U.S. since then, researchers may continue to speculate on the relationship between social media posts and the acts of domestic terrorism.Here's an excerpt from the journal's abstract in Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression:Much qualitative research has drawn an association between social media and domestic terrorism, with the studies reaching different conclusions. However, few empirical studies have evaluated whether the surge in social media participation affects domestic terrorist events. Controlling for common explanations in the literature, we conduct a cross-national, time-series analysis of up to 151 countries from 2000 to 2019 to assess the impact of social media penetration on domestic terrorism. We find that greater social media penetration increases the likelihood of domestic terrorism in countries as it supports extremists’ ability to recruit, mobilize, and train terrorists.Using mediation analysis, we also find that greater social media penetration amplifies online and political polarization, increasing the likelihood of domestic terrorism events. Our work indicates the possible mechanisms linking social media and domestic terrorism and the need to develop and apply appropriate counterterrorism strategies to mitigate terrorist operations.“There is a noticeable effect that social media can really influence political violence, especially if it’s used for disinformation purposes. I think maybe it’s just something to think about going forward for governments and citizens regarding how we should approach social media because I think with any type of technology, it can be used for good or for evil.”While there are countries that try to limit certain social media platforms depending on what information is being transmitted, there will likely be ways around any restrictions put in place.“When you’re thinking overall regarding social media, and we’re thinking about communication over social media, is that individuals at times do have certain technologies that they can circumvent those controls at times. So it can be a cat and mouse game between the government and the citizens.”Dr. Lance Hunter is an assistant professor of political science with a background in international relations. His research focuses on how terrorist attacks influence politics in democratic countries and how political decisions within countries affect conflicts worldwide.Hunter is available to speak with media about this important topic simply click on his icon to arrange an interview today.
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Biography
Hunter is an assistant professor of political science with a background in international relations. His research focuses on how terrorist attacks influence politics in democratic countries and how political decisions within countries affect conflicts worldwide. His work has appeared in journals such as: Journal of Peace Research, Terrorism and Political Violence, Party Politics, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Armed Forces and Society, Conflict, Security and Development, and the International Journal of Data Analysis Techniques and Strategies. Hunter teaches courses in international relations, security studies, and research methods. He received his PhD in Political Science from Texas Tech University in 2011.
Areas of Expertise
Politics
Terrorism
International Relations
Voting
Civil Liberties
Affiliations
Augusta University Political Science Club : Co-Advisor
Augusta University ONE Organization : Advisor
Augusta University Cyber Institute: Advisory Committee Member
Augusta University Honors Program: Committee Member
A 'perfect tool' to increase division: Augusta University professor talks TikTok ban
Augusta Chronicle print
2024-03-26
An Augusta University political science professor said national politicians are justified in their concerns over TikTok and he understands the federal government's recent steps in banning the China-based app.
TikTok, which is owned by ByteDance, is one of the most popular social media sites in the world. In the United States, more than 170 million people and businesses use the app on a regular basis, according to national reporting.
Recently, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a bipartisan bill in support of banning the app unless it is sold. The decision now rests with congress.
What role will artificial intelligence play in 2024 presidential election?
WRDW tv
2024-03-14
As we get closer to November’s presidential election, experts are warning of the dangers of artificial intelligence and misinformation.
AI is playing a factor in how those will decide in the November election.
“AI algorithms can be used by countries to conduct influence operations and try to influence one election, but also try to influence levels of division, polarization, you know, divisiveness, things like that,” said Augusta University professor of International Relations in the Department of Social Sciences, Lance Hunter.
An issue now is how this technology can be regulated. Talks on how to do this started in the Biden Administration when ChatGPT became public.
Terrorism Charges for Mass Shooters? Experts Are Divided
The Trace online
2022-01-14
The 15-year-old student accused of fatally shooting his classmates at Michigan’s Oxford High School in November is inching toward a trial to determine his guilt on 24 felony charges. One of them — committing an act of terrorism — has rarely been applied in the context of mass shootings, so the move has reignited a debate over whether such violence should be treated as terrorism in the eyes of the law.
Lance Hunter, an associate professor of international relations at Augusta University, said many scholars and policymakers do not consider mass shootings a form of terrorism because they think of them as an expansion of day-to-day criminal activity. “Terrorist acts are viewed more so as hijackings or bombings; novel acts that fall outside of criminal activity,” Hunter said. “I think the action — the shooting versus a bomb — is a large part of how people view it.”
Was it terrorism? Local expert weighs in on mass shooting in Buffalo
WJBF tv
2022-05-16
The mass shooting that took place in Buffalo on Saturday, is considered a hate crime. But, an expert at Augusta University said it also fits the definition of terrorism.
Dr. Lance Hunter is an Associate Professor of Political Science at AU. He spent years researching mass shootings and terrorism, and eventually published his findings.
He explained an event must fit three criteria to be considered an act of terror. It must be a violent event, be motivated by radical political, social, or religious ideologies and have a target “enemy” or “other”.
“They do want to influence elections at times, absolutely. But one of their other goals, and sometimes even more predominant goals for them is to increase division, increase polarization, and that’s a great way to do that. Even if you have a temporary reaction, you’ve increased that division which could have longer term effects.”
“One thing the average person can do is be very wary of what you’re seeing and ask yourself does this seem legitimate?” he added. “If everyone is saying the exact same thing, that’s a tell sometimes. Also, where does this information originate from and what are the timestamps on the posts? Something else is to look at the individual who made the post. Who are these people and who’s following them? You may be able to see if they are legitimate accounts.”
“One, it’s the data gathering, and that can be used for micro targeting because basically what TikTok can do is collect the data, and provide information as to what certain individuals respond to an this is exactly how you can persuade them.” “Also, there is empirical evidence that China has used TikTok before to try to influence elections to some degree. One example in the 2022 midterm elections in which some candidates from both parties were targeted by TikTok accounts that were controlled by a propaganda agency operating within the Chinese government.”
Telework and Work Flexibility in the United States Federal Government Post-Pandemic
Sage Journals
Lance Y. Hunter, Martha Ginn, Wesley L. Meares, William Hatcher
2024-04-11
A decade before the COVID-19 pandemic, the United States (US) federal government was working to create flexible work environments for employees under the 2010 Telework Enhancement Act. Given this reality and the growing desire for greater flexibility of workers inspired by the “Great Resignation” during the pandemic, the US federal government appears to have recovered lost employees faster than other levels of the public sector. Still, given that federal workers skew older with less than a tenth of the workforce being under age 30 years and nearly a third reaching retirement age, a true crisis still looms in our administrative state. Using the 2021 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey Data, we analyze what factors predict turnover intention post-pandemic, focusing the analysis on teleworking and other workplace flexibility policies. We use the findings to make recommendations to help increase employee recruitment and retention within the US federal government.
The effects of COVID-19 on domestic and international security in democratic and authoritarian regimes
Cambridge University Press
Kristen Topping , Yousef Hosny , Lance Y. Hunter and Yufan Yang
2024-04-03
While numerous studies have examined how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected health care systems, supply chains, and economies, we do not understand how the pandemic has impacted the security of democratic and authoritarian states from a global standpoint. Thus, this study examines how COVID-19 has affected the security of democratic and authoritarian regimes. In conducting a historical, qualitative review of the security effects of the pandemic, we find that COVID-19 significantly affected domestic and international security for democratic and authoritarian states in both similar and varied ways. Additionally, the manner in which states responded to the pandemic was often conditioned by their regime type and by the nature of the governing leadership during the pandemic. These findings have important implications in considering how COVID-19 affected the security of democratic and authoritarian states, how regime type shapes government responses to infectious disease outbreaks, and how democratic and authoritarian states may respond to future pandemics.
Artificial intelligence and information warfare in major power states: how the US, China, and Russia are using artificial intelligence in their information warfare and influence operations
Taylor & Francis Online
Lance Y. Hunter, Craig Albert, Josh Rutland, Kristen Topping, Christopher Hennigan
2024-03-05
Previous research in security studies contends that information warfare (IW) is becoming a critical element in states' overall security strategies. Additionally, many researchers posit that artificial intelligence (AI) is quickly emerging as an important component of digital communications and states' military applications worldwide. However, less is known regarding how states are incorporating AI in their information warfare and influence operations (IWIO). Thus, given the growing importance of AI and IW in global security, this paper examines how the United States, China, and Russia are incorporating AI in their IWIO strategies and tactics. We find that the US, China, and Russia are utilizing AI in their IWIO approaches in significant ways depending on each state's overall IW strategy, with important implications for international security.
Weaponizing Words: Using Technology to Proliferate Information Warfare
The Cyber Defense Review
Craig Douglas Albert, Ph.D., Lance Y Hunter, PhD, Samantha Mullaney Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Huitt, Lydia Snyder
2023-12-05
The United States risks losing its information advantage over its near-peer competitors, specifically China. One reason behind this possibility is that the U.S. lacks a coherent doctrine of information warfare, which has put the U.S. at a disadvantage. Considering the Russian interference in elections of several North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) states and allies, including Ukraine, Germany, and, the United States, most stunningly in the 2016 presidential election, this article addresses the question: What is to be done? Before delving into possible solutions, the exact nature of the complex problem must be explored. The purpose of this article is to investigate the ways the U.S. could improve in information warfare, specifically against one of its top near-peer competitors, China. First, this article summarizes how China compares with the United States concerning information warfare and influence operations. Second, it delves into some of the definitional chaos in which the U.S. is mired. Thirdly, the article illustrates the doctrinal and data policies of the U.S. Department of Defense. Finally, it concludes with policy recommendations.
Domestic terrorism, incumbency, and legislative vote shares
Sage Journals
Lance Y Hunter, Joseph W. Robbins, Martha H. Ginn
2023-11-20
A small number of studies have examined the effect terrorism has on political ideology and vote choice cross-nationally. However, scholars yet to understand how terrorist attack type influences vote choice based on the political ideology of incumbent governments. Thus, we examine the effect domestic and transnational terrorist attacks have on vote choice in legislative elections while accounting for the ideology of the incumbent government. In examining 56 democracies from 1975 – 2014 from various regions and levels of development, we find that domestic attacks, and not transnational, significantly effect both right and left party votes shares when the incumbent party in government is of a similar ideology. We attribute these results to the perception of instability that accompanies domestic attacks and the effects it has on voters’ evaluations of political parties. These findings have important implications for understanding how terrorism influences electoral behavior.
The effects of COVID-19 on domestic and international security in democratic and authoritarian regimes
Cambridge University Press
Kristien Topping, Yousef Hosny, Lance Y Hunter, Yufan Yang
2023-10-12
While numerous studies have examined how the COVID-19 pandemic has affected health care systems, supply chains, and economies, we do not understand how the pandemic has impacted the security of democratic and authoritarian states from a global standpoint. Thus, this study examines how COVID-19 has affected the security of democratic and authoritarian regimes. In conducting a historical, qualitative review of the security effects of the pandemic, we find that COVID-19 significantly affected domestic and international security for democratic and authoritarian states in both similar and varied ways. Additionally, the manner in which states responded to the pandemic was often conditioned by their regime type and by the nature of the governing leadership during the pandemic. These findings have important implications in considering how COVID-19 affected the security of democratic and authoritarian states, how regime type shapes government responses to infectious disease outbreaks, and how democratic and authoritarian states may respond to future pandemics.
Destabilizing effects of terrorism on party system stability
Terrorism and Political Violence
2016
In this work, we surmise that terrorist attacks have important implications for two commonly used measures of party system stability. The results of a pooled, cross-sectional time series analysis confirm our hypothesis: deadly attacks proximate to elections destabilize party systems; in addition, the level of democratic consolidation within states also influences the degree that fatal terrorist attacks affect party system stability.
Does accountability matter? How electoral systems affect conflict initiation
Conflict, Security & Development
2016
In this study we contend that legislators are more accountable individually in candidate-centred electoral systems which impacts a state’s decision to initiate interstate conflict.
Military Spending and Electoral Systems: A Reconsideration
Armed Forces & Society
2016
We present a pooled time-series cross-sectional analysis of military spending and electoral institutions and we find that party-based electoral systems, rather than majoritarian ones, foment higher military spending levels—which we attribute to these systems’ predilection for public goods spending.
Democracy and cyberconflict: how regime type affects state-sponsored cyberattacks
Journal Of Cyber Policy
Dr. Craig Albert, Dr. Lance Hunter, Eric Garrett, Josh Rutland
2022-04-18
A large body of research in international relations has focused on the relationship between regime type (i.e., the degree a nation is democratic or authoritarian) and traditional military conflict between states. However, to date, no research has examined how regime type affects conflict in the cyber domain. Thus, we attempt to analyze the effect regime type has on the initiation of state-sponsored cyberattacks. We examine 143 states from 2005 - 2013 utilizing cyber data on known state-sponsored cyberattacks taken from the Council on Foreign Relations Cyber Operations Tracker dataset (CFR-COTD) and economic, political, military, and social data collected by the authors. In conducting a cross-sectional, time series analysis we find that democratic institutions have a pacifying effect on the initiation of state-sponsored cyberattacks.
Epidemiological intelligence fusion centers: health security and COVID-19 in the Dominican Republic
Taylor & Francis Online
Craig Douglas Albert, Alejandro Amado Baez, Lance Hunter, John Heslen, Josh Rutland
2022-07-07
Research on health security has focused on how many different political, economic, social, and health-related factors affect disease containment within states. However, largely missing from this scholarship is an examination of the role public health intelligence plays in limiting the spread of disease. Thus, this study focuses on the effect epidemiological intelligence fusion centers have on disease prevalence. We conduct a case study analysis of the Dominican Republic’s use of epidemiological intelligence fusion centers during the COVID-19 pandemic and provide policy recommendations for other states to follow.
The Fourth Industrial Revolution, Artificial Intelligence, and Domestic Conflict
Taylor & Francis Online
Lance Y. Hunter, Craig Albert, Josh Rutland & Chris Hennigan
2022-11-22
An emerging field of scholarship in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and computing posits that AI has the potential to significantly alter political and economic landscapes within states by reconfiguring labor markets, economies, and political alliances, leading to possible societal disruptions. Thus, this study examines the potential destabilizing economic and political effects AI technology can have on societies and the resulting implications for domestic conflict based on research within the fields of political science, sociology, economics, and artificial intelligence. In addition, we conduct interviews with 10 international AI experts from think tanks, academia, multinational technology companies, the military, and cyber to assess the possible disruptive effects of AI and how they can affect domestic conflict. Lastly, the study offers steps governments can take to mitigate the potentially destabilizing effects of AI technology to reduce the likelihood of civil conflict and domestic terrorism within states.
The Effects of Social Media, Elites, and Political Polarization on Civil Conflict
Taylor & Francis Online
Lance Y. Hunter, Glen Biglaiser
2022-12-29
Although prior research has investigated how social, economic, and political factors affect civil conflict, empirical scholarship has yet to consider how social media impacts civil conflict. Using cross-national research for up to 157 states from 2000–2019, this study examines the effect social media has on civil conflict. We find that more time spent on social media, greater social media penetration (i.e. the number of users), and the specific manner elites use social media are associated with an increased number and severity of civil conflicts. We also carry out mediation analysis and see that elite use of social media to organize offline political activities, government elites’ dissemination of false information, and political party elites’ dissemination of disinformation are all correlated with an increase in political polarization, and polarization raises the likelihood of civil conflict. Our results indicate the ways social media affects political violence, showing how different communication technologies can serve to exacerbate civil conflict under certain conditions.
Lance Y. Hunter, Glen Biglaiser, Ronald J. McGauvran, Leann Collins
2023-01-02
Much qualitative research has drawn an association between social media and domestic terrorism, with the studies reaching different conclusions. However, few empirical studies have evaluated whether the surge in social media participation affects domestic terrorist events. Controlling for common explanations in the literature, we conduct a cross-national, time-series analysis of up to 151 countries from 2000 to 2019 to assess the impact of social media penetration on domestic terrorism. We find that greater social media penetration increases the likelihood of domestic terrorism in countries as it supports extremists’ ability to recruit, mobilize, and train terrorists. Using mediation analysis, we also find that greater social media penetration amplifies online and political polarization, increasing the likelihood of domestic terrorism events. Our work indicates the possible mechanisms linking social media and domestic terrorism and the need to develop and apply appropriate counterterrorism strategies to mitigate terrorist operations.
Understanding the cyber-victimization of young people: A test of routine activities theory
ScienceDirect
Candice E. Griffith, Melissa Tezlaff Bemiller, Lance Y. Hunter
2023-01-22
Research on cybervictimization focuses on a variety of behaviors. The present study focuses on four behaviors: hacking, having obscene photos shared, bullying, and stalking/trespass to test the Lifestyles Routine Activities Theory (LRAT). Much of the research on cybervictimization uses LRAT to help explain how some groups of individuals are susceptible to becoming victims. We surveyed young adults, aged 18-25, using a paid Qualtrics sample and a convenience sample from a southern university. Using binominal logistic regression, we test the likelihood of victimization across the various behaviors and with the three main elements of LRAT, motivated offender, suitable target, and absence a capable guardian. We found that online dating was the most likely way to be exposed to a motivated offender, that visiting explicit websites made one a suitable target, and knowing how to set privacy settings helped guard against victimization.
The Double-Edged Sword of Foreign Direct Investment on Domestic Terrorism
Sage Journals
Glen Biglaiser, Lance Y. Hunter, Ronald J. McGauvran,
2023-01-27
This paper studies the effects of foreign direct investment (FDI) on domestic terrorism. Using a cross-national, time-series analysis of 114 countries from 1991–2017, and employing structural equation modeling to test a number of mediating factors, we find that the impact of FDI on domestic terrorism depends on the host state’s level of economic development. For host countries at higher-income levels, FDI boosts economic development and global integration promoting prosperity, increasing counterterrorism resources, and reducing the economic grievances that foster terrorism. Conversely, for lower-income host countries, increased FDI fuels higher domestic terrorism, as it intensifies clashes between traditional and modern elements within society, raises economic discrimination, heightens perceptions of economic insecurity, and subsequently leads to grievances directed against the state. Our results indicate a curvilinear relationship between FDI inflows and domestic terrorism, suggesting that FDI produces a double-edged sword between promoting economic development and increasing domestic terrorism in host states.
Community-level internet connectivity and mental health: an analysis of United States counties
Journal of Mental Health
William Hatcher, Lance Hunter, Wesley Meares, Mary-Kate Lizotte, Dustin Avent-Holt
2023-04-09
Background: Access to the Internet is often viewed as a positive feature of communities, but little research has been conducted examining the effects of internet access on mental health at the community level.
Aims: To examine the relationship between internet connectivity and mental health in United States (US) counties, an analysis that has not been conducted in the public health literature.
Methods: We analyzed predictors of mental health in US counties. Data from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the U.S. Bureau of the Census, and the County Health Rankings and Roadmaps were used to construct a time-series regression analysis. The data were available from 2013 to 2016.
Results: US counties that increased their internet connectivity over this period also had more citizens report suffering from mental health conditions.
Conclusions: Public health needs to focus on the county-level predictors of mental health and how internet connectivity may not always produce positive effects and may be contributing negatively to the mental health of communities.
Social media, disinformation, and democracy: how different types of social media usage affect democracy cross-nationally
Taylor & Francis Online
Lance Y. Hunter
2023-05-15
Much speculation exists regarding how social media impacts the health of democracies. However, minimal scholarly research empirically examines the effect social media has on democracy across multiple states and regions. Thus, this article analyses the effect social media and disinformation transmitted over social media have on democracy. The findings from a cross-national, time-series analysis of 158 states from 2000–2019 indicate that different types of social media usage have varying effects on democracy. General social media consumption, the presence of diverse political viewpoints on social media, and the use of social media in political campaigns bolster democracy. However, social media disinformation, online political polarization, and the use of social media to organize offline violence reduce overall levels of democracy. In addition, a mediation analysis is conducted to identify the precise linkages between social media disinformation and democracy and indicates that government and political party disinformation impact democracy by weakening key democratic norms.
